Chapter 7
Catching Up on Studies Not Employment
7.1 Middle East and North Africa
1
7.1.1 Employability
In its 2015 global report, the ILO observes that in the Middle East and North Africa,
the overall level of unemployment has risen to 11.6 %, and that youth unemploy-
ment rate is “remaining 3.7 higher than the adult rate”,
2
thus remaining one of the
highest. In that context women experience similar difficulties, access to employ-
ment is more difficult.
This situation is worsened by strong religious and cultural barriers which prevent
women to enter the labour market. As a matter of fact, female participation rate to
the labour market remains extremely low; for the whole region, it is estimated to be
of about 21.7 %, one of the lowest rate observed in the whole world. Complying
with written and unwritten rules, women remain “invisible” on the labour market.
Yet, as the number of graduated women increases, some improvements can be
observed over the past years. This is demonstrated by Tunisia. Despite a complex
environment, women labour force participation rate on the labour market has
gained almost 10 points in the last decade (from 25 % in 2005 to 34 % in 2012),
while that of all women access is of 26 %. A similar demonstration can be
developed for Algeria where the important increase of graduated women is an
element that has contributed to improve their labour force participation rate which
has grown from 6.6 % in 2000 to 16.6 % in 2013 (see Fig. 7.1).
When the detailed data is available, it appears that tertiary graduated women
ability to enter the labour market is much higher. For instance, while all women
1
For purpose of analysis consistent with part I, countries included in the geographic analysis are
Algeria, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia and the United Arab
Emirates.
2
Source: ILO (2015a).
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017
C. Schmuck, Women in STEM Disciplines, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-41658-8_7
157
labour force participation rate is of 65 %, in Tunisia, it reaches 78 % for women
holding the equivalent of a master and almost 88 % for those who have a PhD. In
Qatar, 61 % of tertiary graduated women enter the labour market (which is 10 %
higher than what is observed for all women). In Saudi Arabia where all women
labour force participation rate is much closer to the regional average with 20 %,
about 80 % of tertiary graduated women enter the labour market.
However while access to the labour market has improved in most countries
where the proportion of tertiary graduates has increased, access to employment
hasn’t, except in a few countries. Overall unemployment levels reflect a wider
problem of these economies, which despite continued growth until 2008 have not
created enough jobs for new entrants. As dem onstrated by the World Bank in a 2013
report, employment grew but not as rapidly as the working age population; as a
result both MENA countries are experiencing a “youth bulge”.
3
In countries that benefit from a strong commitment from public decision makers,
women have gained better access to employment. For instance, in Jordan, women
level of unemployment has been cut by half, from 41.5 % in 2000 to 22.2 % in 2013
(see Fig. 7.2). In addition the gender gap with men has decreased importantly from
24 % to 11 %. In Qatar the same situation is observed; women access to work has
also significantly improved since their level of unemployment has dropped from
12.6 % to 1.5 %. In Morocco, according to the data available, the level of unem-
ployment of men and women was already equivalent in 2000; for both gender it has
diminished in similar proportion to reach approximately 9 %.
To the contrary women situation has deteriora ted in Algeria, Saudi Arabia and
the United Arab Emirates in the last decade either in terms of unemployment level
NA
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Algeria Irak Jordan Lebanon Morocco Qatar Saudi
Arabia
Tunisia United
Arab
Emirates
LFMmen LFM women
Fig. 7.1 Labour force participation rate by gender and country in 2013. Source: Analysis of
total labour force participation rate by gender 2013 or nearest year available, ILO, extraction
August 2015
3
Source: World Bank (2013).
158 7 Catching Up on Studies Not Employment
(from 9.3 to 20 % in Saudi Arabia and 2.4 to 10.8 % in the United Arab Emirates) or
gender gap (no gender gap in Algeria in 2000, gender gap of 8 % in 2013). However
holding a degree doesn’t always bring an advantage to women. For instance, in
Saudi Arabia tertiary graduated women face an unemployment rate which is higher
than that of all women: 20.7 % versus 9.3 %. Even being graduated in STEM
doesn’t appear to improve employment level either. In fact results to the online sur-
vey
4
indicate that women from MENA who are tertiary graduated in STEM
experience an unemployment level which is higher than that of all tertiary graduate
respondents: 18 % versus 16 %. This reflects the fact that qualified women face
much higher barrier to acce ss emp loyment than men. Not only do they have to
overcome religious and cultural barriers, they also have to face legal and institu-
tional obstacles which makes it more costly for companies to hire them and forbid
them to work in certain types of jobs considered to be “against women morals”.
5
7.1.2 Sectors and Occupation
Despite all these obstacles, are there some countries where the proportion of women
in scientific or technical jobs reflects the strong increase of STEM graduated
women? On this subject the lack of data doesn’t allow to develop a thorough
analysis. However some preliminary conclusions can be developed based on what
is available. In all of the countries observed in this report, the proportion of women
in technical and professional jobs is well below 50 % (see Fig. 7.3). Yet there are
some countries where the situation is slightly more positive. In Algeria and Tunisia,
for instance, the higher proportion of graduated women in STEM is reflected by the
higher proportion of women in technical occupations. But that doesn’ t apply to
Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates which are also countries where
Fig. 7.2 Unemployment rate by gender. Source: Analysis of tertiary graduated unemployment
rate by gender, ILO, extraction: August 2015
4
Source: Yfactor 2014 survey, 196 respondents from 20 MENA countries.
5
Source: World Bank (2013).
7.1 Middle East and North Africa 159
the proportion of graduated women in STEM is high, but do not have high
proportion of women in these jobs.
A closer look at the feminization of scientific and technical sectors confirms the
fact that the proportion of women in these jobs remains low. More specifically on
professional, scientific and technical activities, they represent less than 10 % of
workers. The only sectors in which the proportion of women is higher are human
health and social work activities, as well as education (see Fig. 7.4).
Clearly choosing to study STEM does not bring women from the MENA regions
the type of jobs their studies are preparing them for. In fact, there is an increasing
gap between the number of women who are graduated and access to qualified jobs.
This gap has been widened by the general lack of employment opportunities from
the private sector.
However the high proportion of women who are gradu ated in computing
(MENA countries rank second, after East Asia by the proportion of graduated
women in ICT which reached 47.4 % in 2013) and therefore can more easily
work at a distance does open new possibilities to practise remote working. It is an
option that is probably curr ently generating results that can ’t be measured. It is
known that current statistics do not reflect the rece nt growth of the “invisible
economy”, which is viewed by some obser vers as a “powerful socio-economic
phenomenon
6
” led by women, as it enables them to generate revenue from home.
The need for a programme on gender and economic inclusion is strong. This has
been highlighted both by the World Bank and the World Economic Forum. Hope-
fully results from pilot experiment such as the one developed in Jordan focused on
facilitating school-to-work transition by supporting young women to acquire “on-
the-job experience and skills”
7
will enable to identify solutions. In addition new
32.7
33.7
48.7
15.5
31.7
45.4
21
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Algeria Jordan Lebanon Qatar Saudi
Arabia
Tunisia United Arab
emirates
Fig. 7.3 Feminization of technical occupations. Source: Analysis of unemployment by occu-
pation by gender, nomenclature: ISCO 88 for Algeria, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, the United
Arab Emirates, extraction: August 2015
6
Source: “Gulf women, competing economies”, Dr Amal Mohammed Al-Malki, World Bank,
March 6, 2015.
7
Source: World Bank (2010).
160 7 Catching Up on Studies Not Employment
initiatives are conducted to make this change. For instance, the 2014 initiative of the
World Economic Forum on “rethinking Arab employment” held by the Gulf
Cooperation Council
8
reflects the level of awareness of public and private decision
makers on that subject, as does the more recent initiative from the United Nations
Industrial Development Organization which is working on the project of “promot-
ing women empowerment for inclusive and sustainable industrial development in
the MENA region”.
7.2 South-West Asia
9
7.2.1 Employability
Both in Bangladesh and Iran, women labour force participation rate hasn ’t
improved over the past years (see Fig. 7.5). As in the Middle East and North Africa,
women access to the employment market is among the lowest in the world. No
detailed data is available on the situation of graduated women, but the overall
evolution indicates that the increas e of graduated women is not reflec ted by an
improvement of women access to the employment market. In all these countries,
which are also among those where women face the most important level of
discrimination according to SIGI (Social Institutions and Gender Index), access
to the employment market has decreased for graduated women in the past 10 years.
Fig. 7.4 Feminization of sectors. Source: Analysis of employment by economic activity by
gender, ISIC Rev.4 (except for UAE), ILO, extraction: August 2015
8
Gulf Cooperation Council members: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United
Arab Emirates.
9
For purpose of analysis consistent with part I, countries included in the geographic analysis are
Bangladesh and Iran.
7.2 South-West Asia 161
Both Bangladesh and Iraq have experienced substantial growth over the past
years, but it has been a jobless growth; unemployment remains high both for men
and women (see Fig. 7.6). Even in Bangladesh where unemployment is much
lower, this results from strong increase of vulnerable forms of employment (mostly
subsistence agriculture), which accounts for three quarter of all employment.
7.2.2 Sectors and Occupation
As in MENA and sub-Saharan African countries, the proportion of women working
in technical occupations is below 50 % (see Fig. 7.7). Yet the growing number of
graduated women in STEM is reflected by their growing share in technical jobs .
In the two countries, the share of women holding a degree in STEM has
increased importantly over the past 10 years; in Bangladesh it has grown to 17 %
of EMC resulting from an increase of 57 %. During the same period of time, it has
grown in similar proportion in Iran (þ56 %); as a result women represent 21 % of
EMC graduates. This could provide an element of explanation to the increasing
proportion of women in sectors such as manufacturing and construction in
Bangladesh. In manufacturing it moves from 25 to 28 %, in construction from
7 to 9 % (see Fig. 7.8).
Conversely the proportion of women working in manufacturing in Iran decreases
from 29 % to 23 % and remains about similar in construc tion. In Iran a strong
Fig. 7.5 Labour force participation rate by gender and country in 2000 and 2013. Source:
Analysis of total labour force participation rate by gender 2000 and 2013 or nearest year available,
ILO, extraction: August 2015
Fig. 7.6 Unemployment rate by gender in 2003 and 2013. Source: Analysis of tertiary graduate
unemployment rate by gender, ILO, extraction: August 2015
162 7 Catching Up on Studies Not Employment
increase in the proportion of graduated women in manufacturing had been
observed, which is not reflected at all by their percentage in that sector.
7.2.3 Remuneration
No data is available for any of the two countries on this subject.
0
5
10
15
20
25
Bangladesh Iran
2005 2013
Fig. 7.7 Feminization of technical occupations in 2005 and 2013. Source: Analysis of employ-
ment by occupation by gender, nomenclature in 2005 and 2013 (or nearest years available),
ISCO 88, extraction: August 2015
Fig. 7.8 Feminization of sectors. Source: Analysis of employment by economic activity by
gender 2013 or nearest year available, ISIC Rev.4 ILO, ISIC Rev.3, extraction: August 2015
7.2 South-West Asia 163
7.3 Sub-Saharan Africa
10
7.3.1 Employability
Over the past years, women labour force participation rate has improved in the
region. ILO estimates that the whole region has the highest labour force participa-
tion rate of all regions with a regional average of 70.9 %, which is high above the
global average at 63.5 %,
11
and a gender gap which is well below 20 % in most
countries observed. Yet in less-de veloped countries rather than being a sign of
empowerment, this reflects the absolute necessity to work for a living. In addition,
the situation differs important ly from one country to the other; as illustrated by
Lesotho, Madagascar, Rwanda or Zimbabwe where on the contrary women labour
force participation rate is declining. As confirmed by SIGI (Social Institutions and
Gender Index), these are all countries where the level of discrimination against
women is among the highest, which is an additional element that prevents women
from entering the labour market (see Fig. 7.9).
Levels of unemployment contrast widel y from one country to another yet tend to
be fairly similar between men and women (see Fig. 7.10). The gender gap appears
to be low, in general well below 5 %. Rather than being a positive indicator, this is
the result of the fact that a majority of women are working in vulnerable jobs. The
share of women who are either own-account workers or cont ributing family
workers is one of the highest in the world. It is estimated to reach 76.6 % for the
whole region, which is 30 % higher than the world average (54.3 %). A closer look
at the count ries observed in this report confirms that the proportion of women
working for “households as employers” is indeed extremely high, reaching more
than 86 % in Ethiopia and Zimbabwe.
Fig. 7.9 Labour force participation rate by gender and country in 2000 and 2013. Source:
Analysis of tertiary graduates labour force participation rate by gender 2000 and 2013 or nearest
year available, ILO, extraction: August 2015
10
For purpose of analysis consistent with part I, countries included in the geographic analysis are
Ethiopia, Lesotho, Madagascar, Rwanda, South Africa and Zimbabwe.
11
Source: ILO (2015b).
164 7 Catching Up on Studies Not Employment
In this context rather than providing a better access to employment, being
graduated should enable access to better jobs. The lack of data on graduated
women unemployment level doesn’t allow to check if that applies to women.
7.3.2 Sectors and Occupation
The proportion of women working in technical occupations is below 50 % in mos t
countries, reflecting the low proportion of graduated women in STEM (see
Fig. 7.11). In the two countries where women represent more than 50 % of the
workforce, this is consistent with the recent evolution of the proportion of
graduated women in STEM (30 % in EMC for Lesotho, 50 % in science for
South Africa).
NA
32.9
63.2
42.6
37.5
55.4
32.3
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Ethiopia Lesotho Madagascar Rwanda South Africa Zimbabwe
2005 2013
Fig. 7.11 Feminization of technical occupations in 2005 and 2013. Source: Analysis of
employment by occupation by gender, nomenclature in 2005 and 2013 (or nearest years available),
ISCO 88, data not available for Lesotho, extraction: August 2015
Fig. 7.10 Unemployment rate by gender in 2003 and 2013. Source: Analysis of total unem-
ployment rate by gender and educational attainment, ILO, extraction: August 2015
7.3 Sub-Saharan Africa 165
Similarly the proportion of women in professional, scientific and technical
activities is below 45 % in all count ries (see Fig. 7.12). But South Africa stands
out as one of the countries where the proportion of women in sectors such as energy,
construction and information and communication is among the highest.
Fig. 7.12 Feminization of sectors. Source: Analysis of employment by economic activity by
gender 2013 or nearest year available, ISIC Rev.4 ILO, except Lesotho ISIC Rev.3 extraction:
August 2015
Economic activity Ethiopia Madagascar
South Africa
Total -46% -35%
-26%
Agriculture, forestry and fishing -31% -36%
-33%
Mining and quarrying -89% -74%
-2%
Manufacturing -50% -19%
-71%
Electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply -3% 16%
4%
Water supply; sewerage, waste management and
remediation activities -36% 39%
NA
Construction -65% -10%
-37%
Wholesale and retail trade; repair of motor vehicles and
motorcycles -41% -5%
-10%
Transportation and storage -17% 60%
24%
Accommodation and food service activities -61% -32%
NA
Information and communication -39% -36%
NA
Financial and insurance activities -33% -12%
-16%
Real estate activities -23% 48%
NA
Professional, scientific and technical activities -26% -20%
NA
Administrative and support service activities -41% 49%
NA
Public administration and defence; compulsory social
security -28% -20%
NA
Education -24% -12%
-33%
Human health and social work activities -60% -36%
NA
Fig. 7.13 Remuneration gender gap by sectors in 2013. Source: Analysis of mean nominal
monthly earnings by gender and sector ISIC Rev.4 2013 or nearest year available, no data
available for, data for Kenya ISIC Rev.2, ILO, extraction: August 2015
166 7 Catching Up on Studies Not Employment
