First Principles of Meteorology and Air Pollution

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

VOLUME 19

Editors

Brain J. Alloway, Department of Soil Science, The University of Reading, U.K.

Jack T. Trevors, School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph,

Ontario, Canada

Editorial Board

I. Colbeck, Interdisciplinary Centre for Environment and Society,

Department of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, U.K.

R.L. Crawford, Food Research Center (FRC) 204, University of Idaho, Moscow,

Idaho, U.S.A.

W. Salomons, GKSS Research Center, Geesthacht, Germany

For other titles published in this series, go to

www.springer.com/series/5929

Mihalis Lazaridis

First Principles of

Meteorology and

Air Pollution

Mihalis Lazaridis

Technical University of Crete

Department of Environmental Engineering

Polytechneioupolis

73100 Chania

Greece

ISSN 1566-0745

ISBN 978-94-007-0161-8 e-ISBN 978-94-007-0162-5

DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-0162-5

Springer Dordrecht New York Heidelberg London

# Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

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Contents

1 Description of the Earth’s Atmosphere................................. 1

1.1 Introduction to Atmospheric Structure and Composition ........... 2

1.1.1 Emissions of Air Pollutants in the Atmosphere ............. 2

1.1.2 The Earth’s Atmosphere ..................................... 4

1.1.3 Origin and Evolution of the Atmosphere .................... 7

1.2 Atmosphere’s Characteristics ........................................ 10

1.3 Lower Atmosphere’s Composition .................................. 11

1.3.1 Dry Atmospheric Air. ........................................ 11

1.3.2 Water in the Atmosphere .................................... 11

1.3.3 Atmospheric Aerosols ....................................... 13

1.4 Vertical Division of the Atmosphere – Temperature Change....... 14

1.4.1 Troposphere .................................................. 14

1.4.2 Boundary Layer .............................................. 16

1.4.3 Stratosphere .................................................. 20

1.4.4 Mesosphere................................................... 21

1.4.5 Thermosphere ................................................ 21

1.4.6 Exosphere .................................................... 21

1.4.7 Ionosphere – Magnetosphere ................................ 22

1.5 Change of Meteorological Parameters with Height ................. 22

1.5.1 Temperature Inversion ....................................... 25

1.5.2 Air Density Variation with Height........................... 27

1.5.3 Change of Atmospheric Pressure with Height............... 28

1.6 Model of the Standard Atmosphere ................................. 29

1.6.1 Units of Chemical Components in the Atmosphere ......... 30

1.6.2 Unit Conversion of Concentration of Component I

(mg/m

) to Volume Concentration (Ppm).................... 31

1.7 Radiation in the Atmosphere ........................................ 31

1.7.1 Laws of Radiation............................................ 33

1.7.2 Sun’s Radiation .............................................. 36

1.7.3 Earth’s Radiation............................................. 36

1.7.4 Factors That Affect the Sun’s Radiation Flux to Earth .... 37

1.7.5 Interaction of the Sun’s Radiation in the Atmosphere..... 38

1.7.6 Greenhouse Effect .......................................... 45

1.7.7 Energy Balance of Earth and its Atmosphere.............. 47

1.7.8 Distribution of Sun’s Radiation at the System

Atmosphere-Surface ........................................ 49

1.7.9 The Earth’s Climate ........................................ 50

1.8 Examples............................................................ 54

1.9 Ambient Air Quality Standards .................................... 58

1.10 Appendixes ......................................................... 59

1.10.1 Appendix 1: The Hydrostatic Equation ................... 59

1.11 References .......................................................... 64

2 First Principles of Meteorology ........................................ 67

2.1 General Aspects of Meteorology ................................. 68

2.2 Vertical Structure of the Temperature and Conditions

of Atmospheric Stability .......................................... 70

2.2.1 Dry Vertical Temperature Lapse Rate.................... 71

2.2.2 Wet Vertical Temperature Lapse Rate ................... 74

2.2.3 Temperature Inversion . . . ................................. 75

2.3 Atmospheric Variability – Air Masses – Fronts .................. 77

2.3.1 Air Masses ................................................ 77

2.3.2 Classiﬁcation of Air Masses .............................. 78

2.3.3 Fronts...................................................... 79

2.3.4 Wave Cyclone............................................. 85

2.4 Turbulence – Equations for the Mean Values .................... 86

2.5 Statistical Properties of Turbulence. .............................. 87

2.6 Atmospheric Temperature ........................................ 92

2.6.1 Temperature Season Variability .......................... 92

2.6.2 Temperature Daily Variability ............................ 96

2.6.3 Heating of the Earth’s Surface and Heat Conduction .... 98

2.6.4 Distribution of Temperature in the Air .................. 100

2.7 Humidity in the Atmosphere..................................... 101

2.7.1 Mathematical Expressions of Humidity

in the Atmosphere........................................ 102

2.7.2 Dew Point ................................................ 104

2.7.3 Clouds in the Atmosphere ............................... 106

2.7.4 Precipitation .............................................. 107

2.7.5 Study of Precipitation Scavenging....................... 109

2.8 Applications and Examples ...................................... 112

2.9 References........................................................ 117

vi Contents

3 Atmospheric Circulation .............................................. 119

3.1 Atmospheric Pressure and Pressure Gradient Systems .......... 120

3.2 Atmospheric Pressure Changes .................................. 120

3.2.1 Vertical Pressure Changes ............................... 120

3.2.2 Non-canonical Pressure Changes ........................ 121

3.2.3 Canonical Pressures Changes ............................ 121

3.3 Transfer of the Pressure to Its Mean Value at Sea Level ....... 122

3.4 Isobaric Curves: Pressure Gradient Systems .................... 122

3.5 Pressure Gradient Force.......................................... 124

3.6 Movement of Air: Wind ......................................... 126

3.6.1 Forces Which Affect the Movement of Air ............. 128

3.6.2 Transport Equations of Air Masses in the Atmosphere . 131

3.6.3 Wind Categories ......................................... 132

3.7 General Circulation in the Atmosphere.......................... 137

3.7.1 Single and Three Cell Models ........................... 138

3.7.2 Continuous Winds ....................................... 140

3.7.3 Periodic Winds ........................................... 141

3.7.4 Sea and Land Breeze..................................... 141

3.7.5 Mountain and Valley Breezes ........................... 143

3.8 Vertical Structure of Pressure Gradient Systems ................ 144

3.9 Equations of Atmospheric Circulation........................... 145

3.9.1 Equations of Circulation for a Compressible Fluid ..... 145

3.10 References ........................................................ 149

4 Atmospheric Chemistry ............................................... 151

4.1 Chemical Components in the Atmosphere ...................... 151

4.2 Chemistry of the Troposphere ................................... 152

4.2.1 Sulphur Components ..................................... 155

4.2.2 Nitrogen Components.................................... 156

4.2.3 Carbon Components ..................................... 156

4.2.4 Halogen Components .................................... 157

4.3 Particulate Matter ................................................ 157

4.4 Photochemistry in the Free Troposphere . . ...................... 158

4.4.1 Photochemical Cycle of Ozone and Nitrogen Oxides. . . 158

4.4.2 Chemistry of Carbon Dioxide ........................... 160

4.4.3 Chemistry of Hydrocarbons.............................. 161

4.4.4 Chemistry of Sulphur Compounds....................... 161

4.5 Components of Aquatic Chemistry in the Atmosphere ......... 162

4.6 Chemistry of the Stratosphere - Ozone .......................... 163

4.7 References........................................................ 167

5 Atmospheric Aerosols.................................................. 169

5.1 Introduction ...................................................... 169

5.2 Size Distribution of Aerosols .................................... 171

5.3 Chemical Composition of Aerosols.............................. 180

Contents vii

5.4 Organic Aerosols................................................. 182

5.4.1 Elemental Carbon- Primary Organic Carbon ............ 184

5.4.2 Secondary Organic Matter Formation (Secondary

Organic Carbon) ......................................... 185

5.5 Dynamics of Atmospheric Particulate Matter ................... 186

5.5.1 New Particle Formation. . ................................ 186

5.5.2 Condensation and Evaporation .......................... 193

5.5.3 Coagulation .............................................. 196

5.6 Bioaerosols – Deﬁnition ......................................... 197

5.7 References........................................................ 198

6 Atmospheric Dispersion: Gaussian Models .......................... 201

6.1 Theories of Atmospheric Diffusion.............................. 202

6.2 Euler Description................................................. 202

6.3 Lagrange Description ............................................ 203

6.4 Equations Describing the Concentration of Pollutants

at Turbulent Conditions .......................................... 204

6.4.1 Diffusion Equation in Euler Description ................ 204

6.4.2 Diffusion Equation in Lagrange Description ............ 205

6.4.3 Solution of the Diffusion Equation for a

Continuous Source with the Euler Methodology ........ 207

6.5 Gaussian Model .................................................. 207

6.5.1 Limitations of the Gaussian Model ...................... 208

6.5.2 Calculation of the s

and s

Coefﬁcients. Stability

Methodology ............................................. 209

6.5.3 Plume Rise ............................................... 212

6.5.4 Atmospheric Stability – Application to the

Gaussian Models ......................................... 216

6.6 Analytical Solutions of the Atmospheric Diffusion

Equation .......................................................... 217

6.7 Two-Dimensional, Time Independent Line-Continuous

Source with Changing Values of Velocity

and Diffusion Coefﬁcient ........................................ 220

6.8 Characteristics of Plume Dispersion – Stability Conditions .... 223

6.9 Examples and Applications ...................................... 226

6.10 Appendix 6.1: The Continuity Equation . . . ...................... 230

6.11 References ........................................................ 232

7 Atmospheric Models: Emissions of Pollutants ....................... 233

7.1 Introduction ...................................................... 233

7.2 Dispersion Equations for Pollutant Transport

at the Euler and La grange Coordinating Systems ............... 235

7.2.1 Model of a Single Volume in the Euler System......... 236

7.2.2 Three Dimensional Models of Atmospheric Pollution . . 237

7.3 Statistical Evaluation of Atmospheric Models .................. 238

viii Contents

7.4 Emissions of Atmospheric Pollutants............................ 239

7.5 Emissions from the Biosphere ................................... 240

7.5.1 Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds

from Vegetation .......................................... 243

7.5.2 Calculation of Biogenic Emissions ...................... 243

7.5.3 Sea Salt Emissions ....................................... 245

7.5.4 Emissions of Air Pollutants from

the Earth’s Surface ....................................... 246

7.5.5 Emissions of Pollutants from Forest Fires............... 247

7.6 Examples and applications....................................... 249

7.7 References........................................................ 253

8 Indoor Air Pollution ................................................... 255

8.1 Introduction to Indoor Air Quality............................... 256

8.2 Ozone............................................................. 262

8.3 Nitrogen Oxides.................................................. 265

8.4 Volatile Organic Compounds .................................... 267

8.5 Chemistry of Organic Compounds Indoors...................... 268

8.6 Radon............................................................. 275

8.6.1 Radiactive Decay of Radon Isotopes .................... 277

8.6.2 Exposure and Dose of Radon in Indoor Environment. . . 279

8.6.3 Examples ................................................. 282

8.7 Carbon Monoxide ................................................ 283

8.8 Asbestos .......................................................... 284

8.9 Heavy Metals..................................................... 285

8.10 Formaldehyde .................................................... 287

8.11 Pesticides ......................................................... 290

8.12 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) ...................... 291

8.13 Polychloric Biphenyls (Pcbs) .................................... 291

8.14 Tobacco Smoke .................................................. 293

8.15 Bioaerosols ....................................................... 294

8.16 Microenvironmental Models ..................................... 296

8.17 Air Exchange Rate by Inﬁltration................................ 299

8.18 Emission Models ................................................. 300

8.19 Deposition Models ............................................... 301

8.19.1 Examples................................................ 301

8.20 References ........................................................ 303

9 Human Exposure and Health Risk from Air Pollutants ............ 305

9.1 Human Exposure and Doses from Air Pollutants ............... 306

9.2 Exposure Pathways............................................... 309

9.2.1 Dermal Absorption....................................... 309

9.2.2 Inhalation Exposure ...................................... 310

9.3 Calculation of Dose–Response Functions . ...................... 315

Contents ix

9.3.1 Dose Calculation Through Intake........................ 315

9.3.2 Internal Dose Calculation Through Dermal Absorption 316

9.3.3 Internal Dose Calculation Through Inhalation

and Food Intake .......................................... 318

9.3.4 Functions of Dose–Response ............................ 319

9.4 Particulate Matter Dose Through Inhalation .................... 322

9.4.1 Deposition of Particles in the Respiratory Tract ........ 322

9.4.2 Classiﬁcation of Particles Based on Their

Ability to Penetrate the Respiratory Tract............... 328

9.4.3 Calculation of Particle Deposition in the

Respiratory Tract......................................... 331

9.4.4 Particle Clearance in the Human Respiratory Tract..... 333

9.4.5 Particle Deposition Measurements....................... 338

9.5 Application: Internal Dose from Radon Inhalation.............. 341

9.6 Health Effects from Air Pollutants .............................. 346

9.7 Health Effects from Exposure to Particulate Matter ............ 350

9.8 References........................................................ 354

Erratum ....................................................................... E1

Appendix A ................................................................... 355

Index........................................................................... 359

x Contents