Factors that Inf luence Homeless

Adolescents to Leave or Stay

Living on the Street

Cheryl Raleigh-DuRoff

Introduction

Hidden, transient lifestyles make the number of world and U.S.

homeless adolescents hard to estimate (Ringwalt, Green, Robertson,

& McPheeters, 1998). A rough estimate is 30–170 million worldwide

(Farrow, Deisher, Brown, Kulig, & Kipke, 1992); 1.5–2 million in the

United States (Rew, Taylor-Seehafer, Thomas, & Yockey, 2001); and

2,000 in Seattle each year, with 800 on the street on any given night

(Smart, 1991).

Adolescents are leaving home at an increasingly earlier age, and

are staying on the street longer (Smart, 1991). Before the age of 18,

one youth in eight will run away from home and become a street

person in need of personal services (Gary, Moorehead, & Warren,

1996), and 40% do not return (Kurtz, Lindsey, Jarvis, & Nackerud,

2000). They live in many different places: regional institutions,

hotels, abandoned housing ‘‘squats,’’ or they exchange sex for hous-

ing. They also ‘‘couch surf’’ at friends’ houses or sleep on the street.

In these situations 52% of the homeless youths report having been

assaulted on the street (Youth Care, 2001).

Many studies have identiﬁed the reasons these youths become

homeless. However, little is known about how some are able to over-

come overwhelming challenges and make successful transitions off

the street and into an adult lives, while others sink deeper into trou-

ble. In view of the seriousness of the phenomenon of adolescents choos-

Address correspondence to Cheryl Raleigh-DuRoff, 2737 53rd Ave SW, Seattle, WA

98116; e-mail: [email protected].

Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, Vol. 21, No. 6, December 2004 (Ó 2004)

561 Ó 2004 Human Sciences Press, Inc.

ing to live on the streets, this study undertook to identify factors that

commonly support homeless youths who successfully leave the street,

in order to gain insight for helping others. The goals were to:

1. describe the contributing factors that inﬂuence and assist

homeless youths to actually leave the street;

2. identify the role of hope in the process of leaving the street; and

3. determine what factors keep youths on the street.

Literature Review

A study of literature reveals much information about homeless

youths, but little about motivating them to enter the mainstream.

Researchers have focused on several factors that cause adolescents

to leave or to be thrown out of their homes to become throwaways.

In a sample of 304 Seattle youths, 43% reported being asked to leave

home (Youth Care, 2001). Adolescents become street people because

of: lack of adequate family functioning and support, parental divorce,

separation or death of a parent, change in schools, failing a grade in

school, problems with teachers or students, delinquent behavior,

alcohol or drug use, abuse, mental illness (Rew et al., 2001), families

cannot provide ﬁnancial support (Gary et al., 1996), and they cannot

identify with their families (Smart, 1991). Physical or sexual abuse

was reported by 60% of homeless youths (Bass, 1992).

Most studies of homeless adolescents have focused on why youths

leave home, but few have explored how some are able to make suc-

cessful transitions into adulthood. Where do homeless youths look

for support? In one small study of 13, they looked to family, friends,

and professional helpers who were caring and would hold them

accountable (Kurtz et al., 2000). Another small study of 12 partici-

pants reported that two things were helpful in making the transition

to adulthood: learning new attitudes and behaviors, and the per-

sonal attributes of the youths (Lindsey, Kurtz, Jarvis, Williams, &

Nackerud, 2000).

Multiple studies have focused on hope and how it relates to recov-

ery. Several researchers found that hope is an important factor for

adolescents making a change from a difﬁcult situation. Herth (1996)

viewed hope as essential to human life, a healing force, and a

powerful coping mechanism to decrease despair and make changes.

Hope was described as a power within the self to move beyond the

present situation for a better tomorrow. It implies freedom, adapt-

562 CHILD AND ADOLESCENT SOCIAL WORK JOURNAL

ability, control, and imagination; while hopelessness implies entrap-

ment, helplessness, and impossibility. Stotland (1969) described hope

as a prerequisite for action and an expectation of something desired.

Hinds (1988) deﬁned hope as believing that a personal tomorrow

exists. Characteristics of adolescent hopefulness include: having a

positive perspective, believing a second chance exists, expecting a

better tomorrow, and anticipating a personal future. Herth (1998)

studied the meaning of hope in 60 children who lived with parents

in homeless shelters. The ﬁve strategies that the children used to

foster and maintain their hope were: (a) connectedness, (b) internal

resources, (c) cognitive strategies, (d) energizing moments, and (e)

hope objects (an inanimate object with special meaning). Adolescents

in the Herth study drew future plans to represent their hopes.

Research Methods

A qualitative design was chosen as the most efﬁcient method to

determine what factors inﬂuence homeless adolescents to remain on

or escape from the street.

The Subjects

Participants of the study were 10 employed or in-school adults, age

18–39, who had at one time been on the street for 6 months–9 years

as adolescents. They were from 13 to 18 years old when they became

homeless, and 17–23 years old when they left the streets. Fifty per-

cent of the subjects were asked to leave their homes. The other 50%

ran away because parents were: too protective (30%), physically abu-

sive (10%), or went to jail (10%). The status of the participants at the

time of the interviews was: (a) 6 were male, 4 were female; (b) 7 were

Caucasian, and 3 were African-American; (c) all but one participant

had completed high school or GED, one had a master’s degree, and

two were enrolled in a community college; (d) current jobs included

food service, sales, care giving, gardening, newspaper reporter, and

mental health professional; (e) six lived in apartments—one with a

spouse, and three lived in care-facility programs.

Data Collection

Ten adults living in the Seattle area were recruited by ﬂyers posted

in youth shelters, and in a newspaper advertisement. Three

CHERYL RALEIGH-DUROFF 563

participants signed up as a result of a shelter referral, and seven

were from the newspaper. The interviewer conducted all 10 inter-

views during personal, audio-taped interviews lasting 30–60 min-

utes, which were held in mutually agreed-upon places. Subjects

signed a standard consent form. At the completion of the interview,

participants were paid $10.00.

Measures and Data Analysis

A semi-structured interview guide (consisting of 23 open- and closed-

ended questions) was developed and used to promote dialogue and

solicit data from the 10 adults who had successfully left the street.

Questions addressed current demographics, reasons for leaving

home, length of homelessness, interest in and beneﬁts of getting and

staying off the street, resources utilized to facilitate transition off

the street, the role that hope played, and factors that they believed

kept youths homeless. Individual interview tapes were transcribed,

and content analysis was used to: (a) identify the common factors

that help homeless youths to make the transition off the street, (b)

determine if hope was part of the process, and (c) identify reasons

why some youths remain on the street.

Findings

Factors Inﬂuencing Leaving the Street

The Help of People. The help of people—family, friends, and

professionals—was universally cited as the most important factor

leading to a return to traditional living arrangements. Friends

offered a place to get a shower, a job opportunity, or just someone to

call when they needed it. Girlfriends motivated males to get off the

street and stop taking drugs, providing a place to stay while making

the transition. One participant acknowledged a friend who was also

a teammate through the entire process of being on the street and

getting off.

We drove my mother’s car to Seattle because we heard that it offered

homeless youths resources to get off the street. We wanted to succeed.

It is helpful when you can motivate each other. You don’t want to let

that person down and you don’t want to let yourself down. You have

that extra boost that makes you stronger.

564 CHILD AND ADOLESCENT SOCIAL WORK JOURNAL

Professional helpers were identiﬁed as counselors and case manag-

ers who were people to talk to about concerns and provide

resources.

Help of Organizations. Youth-focused organizations in the Seat-

tle area played a key role in helping participants leave the street

scene. Seven said they could not have succeeded without the help of

supportive organizations. Five people identiﬁed the Youth Care Cen-

ter as making the difference for them because it offered services

such as counseling and educational classes that helped them realize

their potential and be productive members of their communities.

Three were still, at the time of the interview, in Youth Care’s struc-

tured transitional living program to learn skills for life off the street

and to maintain employment.

Four participants found that the welcoming and open environment

at the Orion Multi-Service Center in Seattle was helpful throughout

their transition periods. Orion treated youths with dignity and

respect, while offering them services including emergency help,

counseling, and education. Through the efforts of the Mockingbird

Society, one of the participants was hired as a reporter, which

offered her an opportunity to explore her interest in writing and a

platform from which to learn and grow. Other organizations cited in

the Seattle area include Rental Aide which provided a rental deposit

and the ﬁrst three months of rent, Street Links, Teen Feed, New

Horizons and University Youth Shelters.

Individual Strengths Help. Some participants believed that per-

sonal strengths were central to their success. One reported, ‘‘It was

the determination to leave the street and the strength to stay off

drugs and alcohol that made a difference.’’ Another said, ‘‘My hope

and determination were keys to leaving the street.’’ Participants

reported that they needed to stop using drugs and alcohol in order

to focus on leaving the street: ‘‘Getting off the street is not possible

until youths are willing to . . . shift their focus from drugs and alco-

hol to engaging in steps to leave the street and to leave behind their

street friends.’’ Other strengths cited were organizational and goal-

setting skills to locate housing, food, and other resources. A partici-

pant indicated that his self-conﬁdence allowed him to succeed.

Hope. Encouraged by people and organizations, hope for the

future provided the connection to leave the street and contribute to

CHERYL RALEIGH-DUROFF 565

society. Several described hope as the stepping-stone to get started

toward achieving what they wanted, rather than just wishing. One

participant responded: ‘‘I was pessimistic for a long time. I wanted

to get off the street, but people want a lot of things. . . Starting to

work gave me the hope that getting off the street was possible.’’

Another stated: ‘‘If you don’t have hope you cannot make it. [Then]

you are unable to recognize [chances] when they come along. Hope

kept my eyes open to the doorway when it opened.’’

A variety of experiences gave the participants hope for the future.

Some said getting a job gave them hope and motivation to get off the

street. Others said that trying something different (changing envi-

ronments or circumstances) made the difference. Meeting a girl from

a different socio-economic level gave hope to one participant that he

could change his way of living. Friends who had successfully left the

street offered hope to those who had not. Success in small steps

offered them hope to ‘‘keep moving toward my long-term goal to get

off the street.’’

Street Adolescents’ Dreams. Dreams are an expression of hope for

the future, and participants’ dreams provided that hope. When par-

ticipants were asked in the interviews to share their dreams, they

smiled and seemed to enjoy talking about it. Nine of the subjects

had a continuing sense of their hope for the future; one said that his

dreams were changing so he chose not to answer the question. A

sales representative was, at the time of the interviews, taking steps

toward working for a corporate company. A married administrative

assistant dreamed of being a mother and an English and drama tea-

cher to ensure that her children will have a home. The list goes on.

They all had hope that their dreams could be realized.

Beneﬁts of Getting and Staying Off the Street

The participants who were homeless as adolescents, reported how

they beneﬁted from leaving the street. Most of them (80%) acknowl-

edged that they were not as worried now about basic comforts. One

stated: ‘‘When you are off the street you don’t have to worry about

sleeping, eating, and getting sick as often because you are not

exposed to the elements 24 hours a day.’’ Being warm was most fre-

quently mentioned. One person reported that he left the street to get

away from worry: ‘‘It is not like I feel any better or worse now that I

live in a house. I am still the same person, but the difference now is

566 CHILD AND ADOLESCENT SOCIAL WORK JOURNAL

that I know where I am going to sleep and I have a routine.’’ Several

said that decreased worry allowed them to focus on going to school

or other things of interest. ‘‘Since I have a place to live I can have

intelligent conversations with people and develop my interest in pho-

tography. I am able to look at other things rather than just surviv-

ing.’’ Another appreciated that: ‘‘Without an address it was virtually

impossible to receive a call back from a prospective employer.’’ One

male reported: ‘‘Having a job, I perceived that I was given more

respect as well as being treated like a citizen.’’

An additional question asked was: ‘‘What does being off the street

mean to you?’’ The majority of the responses were positive, with

statements such as ‘‘it means everything to me.’’ ‘‘I appreciate my

mom and dad more, and sleeping in a warm bed.’’ Not everyone

agreed that the change was positive, however. One felt less freedom

because of his commitment to an apartment and working. Another

reported that opportunities for a minority in the white economic

structure were limited. He felt that the system focused on the rich.

How to Help Homeless Youths Get Off the Street

Participants were asked for their insights about recommendations

for helping youths get off the street. Suggestions fell into the follow-

ing categories: (a) show compassion, (b) teach skills, (c) give informa-

tion, (d) instill pride, (e) fulﬁll needs, (f) show the bad side of street

life, (g) have a structured environment, and (h) get more education.

Comments from the participants are grouped into these categories:

Compassion. Comments regarding showing compassion for street

adolescents included: ‘‘To motivate street kids is to listen to what

they need and want.’’ ‘‘Find out what they want to do in life and

show them the possibilities.’’ ‘‘Show youths that somebody cares

about them. Offer food and suitable clothes.’’ ‘‘Show youths how to

have fun that does not involve drugs and alcohol—take them on a

ﬁeld trip to a place of interest.’’ ‘‘Take them by the hand and show

them ... how easy it is to get help, and what they can have living off

the street.’’

Teach Skills. Participants conveyed their belief that skill-build-

ing while youths are still on the street is a necessary ﬁrst step.

‘‘Offer social and coping skills to be successful when off the street.’’

‘‘Build skills in preparation for working and living in transitional

CHERYL RALEIGH-DUROFF 567

housing.’’ ‘‘Teach coping and social skills. People expect you to know

how to re-enter society.’’ ‘‘Teach money management skills.’’ ‘‘Devel-

oping interpersonal skills to interact in a work environment and

making new friends are necessary for success... On the job you have

to know how to control yourself.’’

Information. The participants believed that homeless adolescents

need more information than is available. ‘‘Tell them to explore their

options by getting a case worker.’’ ‘‘Find out what program is suited

to them like the YMCA and Youth Care Transition programs.’’

Instill Pride. Personal pride was important for the participants if

they were to be hopeful. ‘‘Giving money to homeless youths is not

the answer; instead provide daily living needs while they are on the

street, like porta-potties so youths can maintain their dignity.’’ ‘‘Kids

on the street still have pride, so acknowledge their pride.’’ ‘‘Set

short-range aims to help youths embrace the concept that they can

accomplish goals.’’ ‘‘Treat kids like young adults who make their

own decisions.’’ ‘‘You cannot treat them like kids in the suburbs.

They have not had parental supervision and have had to raise them-

selves.’’

Fulﬁll Needs. The homeless need more than physical comforts.

‘‘Encourage youths to continue creating art because art gives grace

to things. . . As long as imagination is still alive you can make it off

the street.’’ ‘‘Create an art center to give them a voice to say the

things they need to say.’’

Show them the Bad Side of Street Living. ‘‘Take them to a

‘Scared Straight’ meeting and show them jails and graves. Then take

them for a walk in the bad parts of town and then to a nice neigh-

borhood where the streets are clean and you don’t have drug dealers

or liquor stores on every corner.’’ ‘‘Get the word out that drugs put

you off your game so that people steal from you and beat you up

when you are not paying attention.’’

Structured Environments. Adolescents need a stable environment

in order to function off the street. ‘‘There needs to be a place that is

stable with structured support, like a halfway community where one

does not have to worry about losing a job or losing a place to live if

you mess up.’’ ‘‘The answer does not totally lie within [street kids].

568 CHILD AND ADOLESCENT SOCIAL WORK JOURNAL

The community has to pay attention to homeless youths and their

problems.’’ ‘‘Give them a sense of community in which they can expe-

rience being wanted.’’ ‘‘If you are alone you will go back on the street

to be with people.’’

Education. Some participants criticized the school system. ‘‘If

you have to force a kid to go to school he isn’t going to learn.’’ ‘‘Kids

that do want to learn don’t get enough [attention] because the teach-

ers are too busy babysitting the kids that don’t want to learn.’’

‘‘Schools do not offer enough and do not challenge kids who need it.’’

‘‘They did not teach me anything I did not know. I left school in the

tenth grade.’’

What Keeps Youths on the Street?

The number of youths on the streets is increasing each year (Smart,

1991). Eight out of the 10 participants could not return home

because they (a) would just be returning to the same dysfunctional

environment, (b) were not wanted, (c) would be placed in foster care

or returned to juvenile facilities. One participant’s parents could not

provide care. Only two subjects returned home for a short while

before going off to college.

When participants were asked their opinion about why some

youths stay on the street their responses were as follows:

Freedom. Seventy percent believed that youths wanted to main-

tain a sense of freedom and community where they felt they

belonged and were wanted. Freedom continues to be an important

reason they remain on the street where there is less pressure to con-

form.

Community. Living on the street offered them the experience of

community, some for the ﬁrst time. ‘‘Homeless kids are nice to new-

comers on the street, even though there is a potential threat that

they might steal their belongings.’’ The street offered a few partici-

pants more of a home than the one they came from. One in particu-

lar said, ‘‘There is a sense of family among street kids. They do not

want to go back to where they feel they do not belong.’’

Distrust of Authority. Youths stay on the street, as reported by

several participants, because of their distrust of authority due to

negative experiences with a landlord, a boss, or the police.

CHERYL RALEIGH-DUROFF 569

No Chance for Success. Many participants believed that street

youths had no chance for success because of their situations: too

young to get a job, prolonged use of drugs, and mental illness. They

had no interest in joining the system because they believed it was

not working, and there was no opportunity to succeed. One believed

that, ‘‘Mental illness and continued use of drugs reduces one’s

chances of leaving the street. The mentally ill ﬁnd it difﬁcult to get

off the street because their minds are not in a state to take the nec-

essary steps.’’ Another said, ‘‘[street people] ﬁnd themselves at the

point of no return, unable to focus.’’

A Sense of Adventure. Comments were: ‘‘The street was fun and

adventurous, especially in the summer because of all the fun things

to do.’’ ‘‘When it is warm and sunny, there are a lot of people to talk

to and activities to join. You can sleep in a tent in the park and tra-

vel easier to meet new people.’’ ‘‘It was a party, running around sell-

ing weed so you can get money. . . ’’ However, participants agreed

that eventually the realization of the difﬁcult life on the street was

more of a fact than the excitement of it.

Summary

In this study, people who were homeless as adolescents shared their

experiences about why they began to live on the street, what was

helpful to get off it, and why some youths remain homeless.

Beginning Street Life

Many studies have researched why homeless adolescents came to

live on the street. These participants’ reasons correlate with ﬁndings

from Rew et al., (2001) and Gary et al., (1996): At the root of adoles-

cents’ decisions were: abuse, parenting issues, problems with the

educational system, being asked to leave, or being runaways from

foster homes or juvenile facilities.

Getting Off the Street

The data from this study suggests that a combination of internal

and external factors assisted them in getting off the street.

570 CHILD AND ADOLESCENT SOCIAL WORK JOURNAL