
of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College (CAMS & PUMC), Beijing
100730, China.
2
National Virtual Simulation Laboratory Education Center of
Medical Sciences, PUMCH, CAMS & PUMC, Beijing 100730, China.
3
Eight-year
Program of Clinical Medicine, PUMCH, CAMS & PUMC, Beijing 100730, China.
4
Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Institute of
Basic Medical Sciences, Neuroscience Center, Chinese Academy of Medical
Sciences, School of Basic Medicine, Peking Union Medical College, Beijing
100005, China.
5
The State Key Laboratory of Management and Control for
Complex Systems, Institute of Automation, Chinese Automation, Chinese
Academy of Sciences (CASIA), Beijing 100190, China.
6
Department of
Emergency, PUMCH, CAMS & PUMC, Beijing 100730, China.
7
Department of
Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, PUMCH, CAMS & PUMC, Beijing
100730, China.
8
Medical Department, PUMCH, CAMS & PUMC, Beijing
100730, China.
Received: 8 February 2020 Accepted: 24 September 2020
References
1. Turney BW. Anatomy in a modern medical curriculum. Ann R Coll Surg
Engl. 2007;89(2):104–7.
2. Moro C, Stromberga Z, Raikos A, Stirling A. The effectiveness of virtual and
augmented reality in health sciences and medical anatomy. Anat Sci Educ.
2017;10(6):549–59.
3. Preim B, Saalfeld P. A survey of virtual human anatomy education systems.
Comput Graph. 2018;71:132–53.
4. Wainman B, Pukas G, Wolak L, Mohanraj S, Lamb J, Norman GR. The critical
role of stereopsis in virtual and mixed reality learning environments. Anat
Sci Educ. 2020;13(3):401–12.
5. Suh A, Prophet J. The state of immersive technology research: a literature
analysis. Comput Hum Behav. 2018;86:77–90.
6. Gartner LP. Anatomical sciences in the allopathic medical school curriculum
in the United States between 1967-2001. Clin Anat. 2003;16(5):434–9.
7. Korf HW, Wicht H, Snipes RL, Timmermans JP, Paulsen F, Rune G, Baumgart-
Vogt E. The dissection course - necessary and indispensable for teaching
anatomy to medical students. Ann Anat. 2008;190(1):16–22.
8. Stepan K, Zeiger J, Hanchuk S, Del Signore A, Shrivastava R, Govindaraj S,
Iloreta A. Immersive virtual reality as a teaching tool for neuroanatomy. Int
Forum Allergy Rhinol. 2017;7(10):1006–13.
9. Preece D, Williams SB, Lam R, Weller R. "Let's get physical": advantages of a
physical model over 3D computer models and textbooks in learning
imaging anatomy. Anat Sci Educ. 2013;6(4):216–24.
10. Shao X, Yuan Q, Qian D, Ye Z, Chen G, le Zhuang K, Jiang X, Jin Y, Qiang D.
Virtual reality technology for teaching neurosurgery of skull base tumor.
BMC Med Educ. 2020;20(1):3.
11. Kockro RA, Amaxopoulou C, Killeen T, Wagner W, Reisch R, Schwandt E,
Gutenberg A, Giese A, Stofft E, Stadie AT. Stereoscopic neuroanatomy lectures
using a three-dimensional virtual reality environment. Ann Anat. 2015;201:91–8.
12. Battulga B, Konishi T, Tamura Y, Moriguchi H. The effectiveness of an
interactive 3-dimensional computer graphics model for medical education.
Interact J Med Res. 2012;1(2):e2.
13. Ferrer-Torregrosa J, Torralba J, Jimenez MA, García S, Barcia JM. ARBOOK:
development and assessment of a tool based on augmented reality for
anatomy. J Sci Educ Technol. 2014;24(1):119–24.
14. Ruisoto P, Juanes JA, Contador I, Mayoral P, Prats-Galino A. Experimental
evidence for improved neuroimaging interpretation using three-
dimensional graphic models. Anat Sci Educ. 2012;5(3):132 – 7.
15. Ferrer-Torregrosa J, Jimenez-Rodriguez MA, Torralba-Estelles J, Garzon-
Farinos F, Perez-Bermejo M, Fernandez-Ehrling N. Distance learning ects and
flipped classroom in the anatomy learning: comparative study of the use of
augmented reality, video and notes. BMC Med Educ. 2016;16(1):230.
16. PeterssonH,SinkvistD,WangC,SmedbyO.Web-basedinteractive3D
visualization as a tool for improved anatomy learning. Anat Sci Educ. 2009;2:61–8.
17. Codd AM, Choudhury B. Virtual reality anatomy: is it comparable with
traditional methods in the teaching of human forearm musculoskeletal
anatomy? Anat Sci Educ. 2011;4(3):119 –25.
18. Birbara NS, Sammut C, Pather N. Virtual reality in anatomy: a pilot study
evaluating different delivery modalities. Anat Sci Educ. 2020;13(4):445–57.
19. Chen S, Pan Z, Wu Y, Gu Z, Li M, Liang Z, Zhu H, Yao Y, Shui W, Shen Z,
Zhao J, Pan H. The role of three-dimensional printed models of skull in
anatomy education: a randomized controlled trail. Sci Rep. 2017;7(1):575.
20. Yammine K, Violato C. A meta-analysis of the educational effectiveness of
three-dimensional visualization technologies in teaching anatomy. Anat Sci
Educ. 2015;8(6):525–38.
21. Shui W, Zhou M, Chen S, Pan Z, Deng Q, Yao Y, Pan H, He T, Wang X. The
production of digital and printed resources from multiple modalities using
visualization and three-dimensional printing techniques. Int J Comput Assist
Radiol Surg. 2017;12(1):13–23.
22. Ryan JR, Chen T, Nakaji P, Frakes DH, Gonzalez LF. Ventriculostomy
simulation using patient-specific ventricular anatomy, 3D printing, and
hydrogel casting. World Neurosurg. 2015;84(5):1333–9.
23. Lo S, Abaker ASS, Quondamatteo F, Clancy J, Rea P, Marriott M, Chapman P.
Use of a virtual 3D anterolateral thigh model in medical education:
augmentation and not replacement of traditional teaching? J Plast Reconstr
Aesthet Surg. 2020;73(2):269–75.
24. Azer SA, Eizenberg N. Do we need dissection in an integrated problem-
based learning medical course? Perceptions of first- and second-year
students. Surg Radiol Anat. 2007;29(2):173–80.
25. Kerby J, Shukur Z, Shalhoub J. The relationships between learning outcomes
and methods of teaching anatomy as perceived by medical students. Clin
Anat. 2011;24(4):489–97.
26. Patel KM, Moxham BJ. The relationships between learning outcomes and
methods of teaching anatomy as perceived by professional anatomists. Clin
Anat. 2008;21(2):182–9.
27. Gold JI, Kim SH, Kant AJ, Joseph MH, Rizzo AS. Effectiveness of virtual reality
for pediatric pain distraction during i.v. placement. CyberPsychol Behav.
2006;9(2):207–12.
28. Snelling J, Sahai A, Ellis H. Attitudes of medical and dental students to
dissection. Clin Anat. 2003;16(2):165–72.
29. Lee YH, Lee YM, Kwon S, Park SH. Reactions of first-year medical students to
cadaver dissection and their perception on learning methods in anatomy.
Korean J Med Educ. 2011;23(4):275–83.
30. Cook DA, Beckman TJ. Reflections on experimental research in medical
education. Adv Health Sci Educ Theory Pract. 2010;15(3):455–64.
31. Liu L, Zhou R, Yuan S, Sun Z, Lu X, Li J, Chu F, Walmsley AD, Yan B, Wang L.
Simulation training for ceramic crown preparation in the dental setting
using a virtual educational system. Eur J Dent Educ. 2020;24(2):199–206.
32. Silen C, Wirell S, Kvist J, Nylander E, Smedby O. Advanced 3D visualization in
student-centred medical education. Med Teach. 2008;30(5):e115–24.
33. Frendo M, Konge L, Caye-Thomasen P, Sorensen MS. Andersen SAW. A
Prospective, Controlled Cohort Study. Otol Neurotol: Decentralized Virtual Reality
Training of Mastoidectomy Improves Cadaver Dissection Performance; 2019.
34. Muller-Stich BP, Lob N, Wald D, Bruckner T, Meinzer HP, Kadmon M, Buchler MW,
Fischer L. Regular three-dimensional presentations improve in the identification
of surgical liver anatomy - a randomized study. BMC Med Educ. 2013;13:131.
35. Farra SL, Smith SJ, Ulrich DL. The student experience with varying immersion levels
of virtual reality simulation. Nurs Educ Perspect. 2018;39(2):99–101.
36. Khot Z, Quinlan K, Norman GR, Wainman B. The relative effectiveness of
computer-based and traditional resources for education in anatomy. Anat
Sci Educ. 2013;6(4):211–5.
37. Rudran B, Logishetty K. Virtual reality simulation: a paradigm shift for
therapy and medical education. Br J Hosp Med (Lond). 2018;79(12):666–7.
38. Sultan L, Abuznadah W, Al-Jifree H, Khan MA, Alsaywid B, Ashour F. An experimental
study on usefulness of virtual reality 360 degrees in undergraduate medical
education. Adv Med Educ Pract. 2019;10:907–16.
39. Tomlinson SB, Hendricks BK, Cohen-Gadol A. Immersive three-dimensional
modeling and virtual reality for enhanced visualization of operative
neurosurgical anatomy. World Neurosurg. 2019;131:313–20.
Publisher’sNote
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affiliations.
Chen et al. BMC Medical Education (2020) 20:395 Page 10 of 10